Writing 'A Private Little War,' Star Trek's Allegory for the American War in Vietnam (Part Three)

Still from 'A Private Little War' (1967)

Don Ingalls delivered his second draft story outline a month after the first, on June 1, 1967 (during the second day of filming on ‘Who Mourns for Adonais?’). His revised version of the story had a new title, ‘A Private Little War,’ and was three pages longer than the first draft. Structurally, the two drafts are very similar, but with added length, the revised version has room to clarify a few story points and expand upon the parallels to the American War in Vietnam. Among the changes Ingalls made in his second draft:

-- The Enterprise’s last visit to Neural is said to have been three months ago, rather than the two year figure given in the first draft.

-- Neural is now described as “one of the several planet groups to which the Federation has made commitments to protect against any acts of aggression… It is absolutely vital to the maintenance of interplanetary peace that the Klingon threat be met head-on.”

-- Ingalls attempts to explain the conceit that only Kirk can carry a phaser, writing, “if their real identity remains unknown, [the landing party] must obviously forego their normal weapons, except for a ‘just in case’ small hand phaser which Kirk himself wears on his belt.”

-- The conflict between the Klingon Empire and the Federation is framed in terms that bring to mind the Domino Theory of the Cold War. “If the Klingons are let move in here, or anywhere, and they do as they wish,” writes Ingalls, “the Klingons gain not only satellite-group strength, but also discredit the Federation’s word and soon other border-line planets who haven’t yet taken sides, will see that our word is useless. They too will then swing to the enemy orbit, seeking the best deal they can make….and the strength of a dangerous, fanatical enemy will grow…and grow. We must protect those we say we will protect…we must keep our promises.”

-- The idea of bringing back Kor from ‘Errand of Mercy’ has been dropped. Instead, the character of Krell appears, although he still recognizes Kirk when the Captain infiltrates the camp.

-- The dangerous beast in the story is called the “Neural Great Ape” in this version.

-- The positions of Kirk, Spock, and McCoy on arming the Central people are more clearly established in this version. Spock points out that with both sides armed, “the slow but sure decimation of both camps” could result. McCoy, on the other hand, presents an uncharacteristically hawkish view. “Why kill a man with slow poison?” Ingalls has the doctor ask. “If one side is right… morally… if an aggressor must be squashed… well then squash him! Quickly, humanely! Give Ty-ree advanced weapons that will make the enemy rifles seem like pea-shooters.” Kirk decides that the only way to follow his orders and maintain the balance of power on the planet is to provide Ty-ree with the rifles, although he does try to make peace by meeting with Krell first. That meeting fails, however, when Krell says he will only accept “the unconditional surrender of the Central people [and] the withdrawal of Kirk and any representatives of the Federation.”

-- Ultimately, after he provides Ty-ree with the rifles, Kirk tells McCoy, “I had to do it, you know.” In response, “Bones shakes his head…it was a cruel thing to do…what’s our purpose in this whole thing, anyway?! What’s yours?! A private little war, with men instead of chess pieces?” Passing a dead soldier, Kirk tells the doctor, “I’m like him, Bones. I obey orders, and I hope my way is right… This ‘little’ war has been fought a million times before in a million different places, and it will probably be fought a million times more…and there isn’t a damn thing you or I can do about it.”

-- Aboard the Enterprise, at the very end, Kirk wonders, “We have advisors there now… how long will it be until we have troops?”

At this point, script consultant D.C. Fontana chimed in with a memo of her own, dated June 8, 1967. Like Roddenberry before her, she was worried that the episode had “a close resemblance to ‘Friday’s Child.’” Looking for a way to set the two episodes apart, Fontana suggested using the Romulans instead of the Klingons, and also asked if there was “any point to making the Neuralese less Arabic and perhaps more Mongolian or Apache Indian or something?”

Although Ingalls had changed Kor to Krell – which Fontana pointed out “were the dead ancients…in the movie Forbidden Planet” – since the Klingon still recognized Kirk on sight, Fontana asked, “Does everyone in the galaxy know Kirk?” On the same point, she argued that “Krell should not know so much about Kirk. Kirk is only one man in the entire Star Fleet.”

Despite her reservations, however, Fontana’s memo was a short one, clocking in at less than one page. Considering she opened it by praising the story as being “much improved,” I suspect she was onboard with “A Private Little War,” at least in outline form.

Roddenberry, too, thought the revised story was an improvement upon the first try, calling it “a good, highly professional outline” in a June 9, 1967 memo to Gene Coon. He went on to praise Ingalls in the memo, going as far to state that, “Properly handled Don Ingalls could become a principle and highly useful STAR TREK writer.”

Still, Roddenberry’s three page memo was not without criticisms. Among them:

-- He asked that the episode begin on the planet, thrusting the episode straight into the action.

-- He wondered if it was necessary for Kirk to have revealed he was from outer space during his previous visit. “On a semi-primitive world like this, starship personnel visiting the planet could easily claim they were from some “village” on the other side of the planet,” wrote Roddenberry. “It would further preserve the integrity of the theme that we interfere not in the slightest, not even by giving out knowledge of exactly who we are and where we come from.”

-- He found it impossible for the Enterprise to have manufactured so many rifles and ammunition in only three hours, “unless they had an automated armory already in operation.”

-- He felt Spock and McCoy were underused and unimportant to the story, and suggested “doing exclusively a Kirk story.”

-- He asked that the Klingons operate less in the open, and compared their intervention directly to Vietnam, writing:

If Earth knew the Klingons were on the planet…then Earth obviously would be obligated to not only set things right here, but take action against the Klingons. In other words, the situation is even closer to the Viet Nam [sic] situation. North Viet Nam [sic] tries to preserve the illusion, or at least tried to preserve it for sometime, that they were not sending men and material to South Viet Nam [sic]. And that way they insisted it was the United States which was the meddler and the aggressor.

-- Writing more on the story’s parallels with the American War in Vietnam, Roddenberry further revealed his stance on that conflict:

Don has done a good Viet Nam [sic] parallel in this but somehow I sense something is missing.  Perhaps it is carrying the parallel all the way--i.e. in the Viet Nam [sic] situation if either side makes a mistake there will be a world wide [sic] holocaust.  So the stakes are terribly great.  In this story, not to be unkind, mistakes seem merely that Earth or the Klingon Empire will probe the other is “cheating” and there will be angry words but it will end there.  At any rate let’s discuss.

Ingalls delivered one more revision to his story outline on June 10, 1967, but this version was largely the same as the second draft, making only cosmetic changes. With Roddenberry and Fontana pleased with the outline’s potential, Ingalls went to work on the teleplay.

(To be continued in Part Four)

(Part One can be read here, Part Two here).

Image courtesy of Trek Core.

Source:

The Gene Roddenberry Star Trek Television Series Collection (1964-1969)

The Great Phaser Caper

In the book Inside Star Trek: The Real Story, Bob Justman writes about an event which he calls 'the great phaser caper.' The exact details of this 'caper' have been the subject of some debate and confusion among Star Trek fans, which I hope I will clear up in this post. Before I get into that, however, let me start by quoting the passage in question:

One of the ideas for Star Trek that didn't pan out was the 'great phaser caper.' During preparation for the second pilot, a toy manufacturer had designed and built some phaser weapons 'on spec.' In return, if the series sold, the manufacturer wanted to merchandise toy replicas of these props. I was thrilled: something for nothing! But Gene finally nixed the design, and the deal fell through. Unfortunately, during the intervening period, NBC Publicity, unaware we had no rights to use the spec phasers, shot a photo session with Bill Shatner, Leonard Nimoy, and Grace Lee Whitney holding the 'illegal' weapons. NBC used the photos in its 'Sales Brochure.' The weapons were never used in the series; the toy manufacturer never found out. Or if he did, we never heard from him. 

--Bob Justman, Inside Star Trek: The Real Story (1996), p.118

Unfortunately, the sales brochure Justman describes hasn't been reproduced anywhere, and my efforts to locate an archival copy in the Star Trek television series collection at UCLA have been unsuccessful. There is a different sales brochure reproduced in Inside Star Trek: The Real Story, but it predates Grace Lee Whitney being cast and therefore couldn't be the document in question (you can view that sales brochure here). Lacking the clear answer the brochure would provide, some fans have been led to speculate that the 'spec phasers' Justman mentions are the props used in the publicity photo shown at the top of this post. However, my research has uncovered quite a bit of evidence which suggests that this isn't the case at all. Instead, I think it's much more likely Justman was referring to the phaser rifle, and simply misremembered the number of props ("one" versus "some").

Although I have yet to locate the sales brochure at the center of this account, many publicity images from the pre-series photo session with William Shatner, Leonard Nimoy, and Grace Lee Whitney have found their way online.  For reference, I'm including several below, in addition to the image seen at the top of this post.

During pre-production on 'Where No Man Has Gone Before,' Gene Roddenberry contacted Norman Felton, the executive producer of The Man from U.N.C.L.E., who had worked in the same capacity on Roddenberry's previous series, The Lieutenant. Roddenberry wanted to know who designed The Man from U.N.C.L.E.'s famous gun prop, because he was looking for a similar prop for use in the second Star Trek pilot.  The man he was looking for turned out to be a toy and game designer named Reuben Klamer, who was well-known for creating 'The Game of Life' in 1960. With only a little more than three weeks before the episode was scheduled to go before the cameras, Klamer agreed to have his Toy Development Center, Inc. company design and build the phaser rifle. Klamer did this at no cost, both in exchange for certain merchandising rights and to get his foot in the door if the program went to series. This chain of events is confirmed by this excerpt from a July 2, 1967 memo from Gene Roddenberry to Ed Perlstein:

Pursuant to our recent conversation, I have informed Reuben Klamer of Toy Development Center, Inc. that he is to proceed with development and fabrication of one (and if possible two) STAR TREK Phaser rifle for use in episode #2. His firm will plan and execute it at no charge to us in return for certain rights in the product as discussed between you and him at this week’s meeting in my office. This particular arrangement applies to this Phaser rifle only.

I also indicated to Mr. Klamer that I am interested in his overall proposal for development of STAR TREK devices with merchandising appeal and am recommending strongly to Desilu that the professional reputation of himself and his firm as well as the advantages of an overall deal be carefully investigated by Desilu. I see considerable advantage of offering creative and design assistance to this production office which is not currently available to us here at this studio. If we can get this kind of help at no loss in anticipated revenue, and even at some possible gain in overall net revenue, it seems to me the advantages override any other arrangements which have grown up over the years through friendship or tradition here.

Toy Development Center, Inc. design sketches for the phaser rifle

According to an interview with Klamer (and confirmed by Roddenberry's memo, which says Klamer's firm would 'design and execute' the prop), the Toy Development Center, Inc. came up with a series of sketches for the phaser rifle prop. The development process was swift, and by June 28, 1965 Gene Roddenberry had signed off on the final design, and Klamer and his team went to work. According to Klamer, 'It took a lot of hard work, at least three men on it at all times, to put it together, day and night.' Klamer delivered the prop in time, and it can be seen at various times in the finished episode.

Still from 'Where No Man Has Gone Before'

After Star Trek sold, Roddenberry wrote a letter to Klamer on March 16, 1966, advising the toy manufacturer of the situation and reminding Klamer of his earlier proposal to develop props for the series on an ongoing basis, similar to the deal eventually made with model kit developer AMT. Although this letter appears in the Roddenberry files at UCLA, it can also be seen online at the Julien's Auctions site: 

Living up to my promise to notify you of changes in the STAR TREK situation, be advised that the series has sold as a one-hour color show to NBC to go on the air this fall. We plan to begin actual photography some time late in May. Mr. Bernard Weitzman, Vice-President of Desilu, should be in touch with you shortly to see what kind of a deal is possible or interesting to us.

Let me remind you again that a great deal of my immediate interest in any such arrangement would be in how much your craftsmen and shops can help the STAR TREK production unit in creation of items we may need, and even more specifically in design and fabrication of items which our writers have built into their scripts. Am sure you are aware of television’s tight scheduling needs and of the fact that any arrangement must contemplate your facilities adjusting themselves to our pressing production dates, sometimes on very short notice.

Hope to be talking to you soon.

The details of what happened over the course of the next month are unclear. The Toy Development Center, Inc. was sent outlines for at least five early episodes ('The Naked Time,' 'Miri,' 'The Corbomite Maneuver,' 'The Galileo Seven,' and 'What Are Little Girls Made Of?'), but by April 21, 1966 Roddenberry found their preliminary efforts to be unsatisfactory and recommended blowing the whole deal in a memo to Ed Perlstein:

I am sure Robert J. has told you this, but I am very much in favor of blowing the Klamer deal. In fact, let me be more definite about it -- I feel if we have this much trouble at this point, it would be most unwise to continue since they seem exactly the kind of people who will hang us up a few days before shooting and we would be in great trouble. We are proceeding with Matt Jefferies and a model maker based on a design which I gave Matt yesterday, a design which very much sets our thematic needs and still has considerable toy implication.

The next day, as indicated by a memo from Perlstein to Roddenberry, it was official: Klamer and his company were no longer involved with Star Trek:

I received your memo of April 21st re the above-mentioned matter and just wanted to point out to you that, officially, as of yesterday morning I told Reuben Klamer’s attorney, Billy Hunt, that we weren't interested in pursuing any research and development or any other type of deal in connection with any of the merchandising of the STAR TREK requirements for items for merchandising. As of this moment the entire matter is dead. If Klamer wants to work with us on any particular item he will first have to submit it to us and then after deliberation, we will determine whether or not we will proceed with him. Please rest assured that Klamer is not involved in the phaser rifle, phaser pistol, transicator [the early designation for the communicator] or any other item.

At some point after that date, but before 'The Corbomite Maneuver' began principal photography on May 24, 1966, Shatner, Nimoy, and Whitney were brought in for the aforementioned publicity shoot. Among the props they were given was Klamer's phaser rifle, which NBC's publicity department was unaware the series no longer had the right to use. Grace Lee Whitney described the occasion in her memoir:

The cast and creators of Star Trek were plunged into a flurry of activity long before we shot a single frame of film. We were all brought together and introduced to each other. Our real costumes and phaser weapons hadn't even been designed yet, so they put Flash Gordon costumes on us and shoved flashlights with colored lenses in our hands. 'Pretend they're gizmotronic space blasters,' they told us. Then they snapped dozens of pre-production publicity stills of us. In those early shots, I didn't look like Yeoman Rand--I looked more like Ann Francis in Forbidden Planet.

--Grace Lee Whitney with Jim Denney, The Longest Trek: My Tour of the Galaxy (1998), p.76-77.  

Of course, Whitney would have had no idea what had been discarded after the second pilot and what the photographer had brought to the shoot, but it seems very unlikely that the Star Trek production made deals with two separate toy manufacturers to build phaser props 'on spec' for the second pilot, only to abandon both results after the series had been ordered. The fact that the flashlight props were used in the publicity shoot is hardly indicative of any intent to use on the series, since a decidedly contemporary globe and flask also show up in the pictures. It makes much more sense to me that Justman simply misremembered the number of phaser rifles delivered (not a big mistake, since the production had initially asked Klamer if it were possible to build two phaser rifle props before filming the second pilot).

Thanks to TrekBBS user Maurice for his encouragement and input on this topic.

Update (7/31/2013): Star Trek History contributor and TrekBBS user alchemist has a copy of the sales brochure in question.  He informs me that it was used to promote the show's second season, and features a publicity photo of William Shatner holding the phaser rifle, along with a behind-the-scenes photograph taken during the production of 'Catspaw.'

Many of the images used in this post are courtesy of Trek Core.

Sources:

The Gene Roddenberry Star Trek Television Series Collection (1964-1969)

Inside Star Trek : The Real Story (Herbert F. Solow and Robert H. Justman, 1996)

The Longest Trek: My Tour of the Galaxy (Grace Lee Whitney with Jim Denney, 1998)

Gene Roddenberry's Cinematic Influences

Since I've become seriously interested in the development and production of Star Trek, I've found a number of books and websites which claim that Gene Roddenberry publicly admitted the influence of a few science fiction films, particularly Forbidden Planet (1956), on the program's early development. Recently, for example, Mark Clark wrote in the book Star Trek FAQ (2012) that 'Roddenberry freely credited Forbidden Planet as an inspiration for Star Trek.' However, in all my research, the only direct quote from the writer/producer that I've found about the movie directly contradicts this sentiment. When asked by a reporter in the 1970s if the Star Trek concept had been heavily influenced by Forbidden Planet, Roddenberry replied:

Definitely not...the only time I ever thought of Forbidden Planet specifically when I was laying Star Trek out was when I said to myself that here were some mistakes they made in the film that I did not want to repeat. I think one of the obvious mistakes, and one that amazed me when I saw the show, although I generally liked [it], was the fact that you had a ship capable of interstellar travel and you had a cook aboard who scrubbed pots and pans by hand and I said, 'Hey, come on, it just doesn't fit.' At least they would have had a radar range oven or something if they had interstellar capacity! But, no, I cannot remember a single time during the planning of Star Trek that I looked at another show and said, 'I will borrow this.'

--Edward Gross and Mark A. Altman, Captains' Logs: The Unauthorized Complete Trek Voyages (1995), p.9

After doing some research, however, it's clear that Roddenberry either misremembered events or wasn't being entirely truthful in his answer. A memo from the UCLA files, which is reprinted in David Alexander's Roddenberry biography, sheds some light on the movie's influence:

To: Herb Solow
From: Gene Roddenberry
CC: [Pato] Guzman
Date: August 10, 1964
Subject: FORBIDDEN PLANET

You may recall we saw MGM’s 'FORBIDDEN PLANET' with Oscar Katz some weeks ago. I think it would be interesting for Pato Guzman to take another very hard look at the spaceship, its configurations, controls, instrumentations, etc. while we are still sketching and planning our own. Can you suggest the best way? Run the film again, or would it be ethical to get a print of the film and have our people make stills from some of the appropriate frames? This latter would be the most helpful. Please understand, we have no intention of copying either interior or exterior of that ship. But a detailed look at it again would do much to stimulate our own thinking.

Also, would much appreciate it if you could provide me with a credit list on that picture, specifically the director, art director, special effects men, etc. Thank you.

--David Alexander, Star Trek Creator: The Authorized Biography of Gene Roddenberry (1994), p.202

Looking at Forbidden Planet and 'The Menagerie' today, it's clear that, although Star Trek is far from a one to one copy of the movie (in many ways, the film's production design has more in common with the look of Lost in Space than it does with Star Trek), it certainly was influenced by the movie:

Still from Star Trek, 'The Menagerie' (1965)

Still from Forbidden Planet (1956)

Still from Star Trek, 'The Menagerie' (1965)

Planetary matte painting from Forbidden Planet (1956)

Still from Star Trek, 'The Menagerie' (1965)

Still from Forbidden Planet (1956)

Again, I don't mean to suggest that Star Trek simply copied Forbidden Planet, but Roddenberry's memo and the accompanying images certainly demonstrate that Forbidden Planet was a stronger influence on Star Trek (particularly the first pilot) than Roddenberry was willing to admit in the 1970s. Of course, there are other similarities (and I am far from the first to notice them): both Forbidden Planet and Star Trek grounded their interstellar adventures by using contemporary naval terminology, and the relationship between Commander J.J. Adams (Leslie Nielsen) and Dr. Ostrow (Warren Stevens) is very reminiscent of the way Kirk and McCoy would interact on Star Trek.

Still from Robinson Crusoe on Mars (1964)

Less well known than Forbidden Planet, but of similar importance to the development of Star Trek, is the film Robinson Crusoe on Mars (1964). Unlike Forbidden Planet, which was one of a number of films Oscar Katz, Herb Solow, and Gene Roddenberry ran on the Desilu lot during the development of the series, Robinson Crusoe on Mars was still in theatres when Gene Roddenberry saw it during the development process. Roddenberry first wrote about the film in a memo to Oscar Katz on July 21, 1964, prior to the film's Los Angeles release:

I would like to bring to your attention a science fiction film titled 'Robinson Crusoe on Mars'. As yet it is unreleased in this area, but it has been given excellent reviews in Variety and the Reporter and is regarded as a sleeper. Since it is unlike many of the pictures we have been seeing, dealing directly with planetary exploration and survival, it might be a good idea to screen this one if it is possible to obtain a print.

Two weeks later, on August 3, 1964, Roddenberry had seen the film and indicated as such in a memo to Herb Solow:

As mentioned, I saw the above motion picture and considered it extraordinarily good, better than anything we have run here. Suggest we get a print when possible so that Oscar can run it for himself. Also, would like appropriate department heads and personnel here to see it. Would much appreciate your office obtaining a complete credit list for this film. Many thanks.

Still from the trailer for Robinson Crusoe on Mars (1964)

It's easy to see why the film appealed to Roddenberry from its trailer, which opens by proclaiming, 'This film is scientifically authentic. It is only one step ahead of present reality!' Roddenberry and others would make similar audience appeals, however far-fetched, about Star Trek. Unlike Forbidden Planet, Roddenberry's interest in the complete credit list of Robinson Crusoe on Mars yielded a few important behind-the-scenes hires. The film's director, Byron Haskin, was brought on as associate producer (Haskin ended up clashing with Roddenberry, and wasn't asked back for the second pilot). The superlative Albert J. Whitlock, a matte painter for the movie, did matte paintings for 'The Menagerie' as well as several later episodes. And although Van Cleave was only considered to score the first pilot (according to a December 8, 1964 note by Gene Roddenberry), his orchestrator on Robinson Crusoe on Mars was Fred Steiner, who went on to score a number of Star Trek episodes (and an episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation).

In terms of casting, both films clearly had an influence on Roddenberry and others at Desilu. In an October 14, 1964 casting memo from Gene Roddenberry to Kerwin Coughlin, Paul Mantee (the lead in Robinson Crusoe on Mars), Leslie Nielsen, and Warren Stevens were all considered for the role of Captain April (later changed to Captain Pike). Likewise, in an October 30, 1964 casting memo from Roddenberry to Herb Solow, Anne Francis was listed as one of a few possibilities for the role of Vina in 'The Menagerie.' Ultimately, none of these actors would be cast in the first pilot, but Warren Stevens (Dr. Ostrow in Forbidden Planet) and Victor Lundin (Friday in Robinson Crusoe on Mars) would later be cast in guest roles in 'By Any Other Name' and 'Errand of Mercy,' respectively.

Historian's Note: During the development of Star Trek: The Next Generation, Gene Roddenberry also screened a number of recent science fiction films, including Blade Runner (1982) and Aliens (1986). The memos I have uncovered at UCLA suggest Roddenberry, Oscar Katz, and Herb Solow screened a number of films during the development of Star Trek, but Robinson Crusoe on Mars and Forbidden Planet are the only two that the archival record specifically names. I would love to know what some of the other titles were, if they've been mentioned elsewhere that I've overlooked.

Shameless Note: If you like this blog and want to support my research, consider shopping on Amazon.com through one of the affiliate links below. I'll receive a small percentage of any purchase you make there, as long as you check out within twenty-four hours after clicking the link.

Images from 'The Menagerie' courtesy of Trek Core.

Sources:

The Gene Roddenberry Star Trek Television Series Collection (1964-1969)

Star Trek Creator: The Authorized Biography of Gene Roddenberry (David Alexander, 1994)

Captains' Logs: The Unauthorized Complete Trek Voyages (Edward Gross and Mark A. Altman, 1995)

Star Trek FAQ: Everything Left to Know About the First Voyages of the Starship Enterprise (Mark Clark, 2012)

Films Cited:

Forbidden Planet (1956) -- DVD Version / Blu-Ray Version

Robinson Crusoe on Mars (1964) -- DVD Version / Blu-Ray Version